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we use three main measures of labour market flexibility, which measure three elements of the flexibility of labour markets: (i) total wages across the whole economy (ivw), (ii) wage dispersion (ivwdisp), and (iii) the proportion of workers who are mobile within a given location (im). each of these measures is used as a panel regressor to estimate the effect of inward fdi on wages, using data for the european union (eu) region from 2005 to 2016. our results suggest that the lack of flexibility in labour markets and the inflexibility in wages generate significant adverse spillover effects on both employment and wages, and that these spillover effects are largely transmitted across regions and countries.
our results shed light on the importance of labour market flexibility for the location of fdi and the way these may affect the local labour market. they also highlight the importance of mobility in the location of fdi, and the way these effects are transmitted across regions. while the precise effects are somewhat nuanced, the results suggest that labour market flexibility and mobility work in tandem to manage the adverse effects of fdi.
we now discuss the theoretical literature, and the literature dealing with the effects of fdi and labour market flexibility. in the context of this paper, which focuses on the labour market effects of fdi, we thus seek to examine the implications of the degree of flexibility of labour markets for the labour market effects of fdi. we then provide an overview of the literature on labour market flexibility and the labour market effects of fdi.
our analysis suggests that both labour market flexibility and the ability to absorb spillovers are, in turn, positively associated with higher growth outcomes. thus, both in terms of export growth and higher domestic employment, we find that countries that are more flexible in their labour market also have the ability to absorb spillover effects, and so can benefit from this. driffield and smeets ( 2013 ) highlight that, in developing economies, domestic firms (even high-tech ones) typically do not have the capacity to absorb spillover effects. such spillovers tend to crowd out existing jobs, and so to depress domestic employment. thus, if you are willing to accept the more traditional view of inward investment, that is, the view that it is generally beneficial to domestic economies, it is the location of foreign direct investment (fdi) that will be important, rather than whether the fdi itself is in a technology-sourcing sector. certainly, these two issues are closely related, but the literature is increasingly highlighting the importance of a range of determinants, including firm culture, in addition to economic conditions (driffield and smeets, 2013). thus, our analysis here suggests that it is the capacity of a location to absorb fdi that is likely to be most important, rather than the type of fdi itself. we use aggregate data from the oecd to test the hypotheses. we find that, overall, the costs of inward investment increase when countries have lower levels of labour market flexibility. we then explore whether this is, in part, a result of the crowding out effect of fdi on domestic employment. we find that, as expected, there is an employment cost for firms located in more flexible countries. however, if we focus on high-technology firms, this negative association disappears. this suggests that the crowding out effect of fdi on domestic employment is weak, in countries that can absorb fdi. we then use oecd data to examine the effects of region. the literature is divided as to whether the aggregated fdi cost is greater in more developed locations. here, we find that, when we control for the ability to absorb spillovers, the aggregated cost of inward investment is not significantly different between regions, suggesting that it is domestic firms that benefit from fdi. in particular, our analysis suggests that, in regions with higher levels of labour market flexibility, firms that are able to absorb fdi can help to absorb the negative employment effects that are associated with inward investment. our findings provide some support for the view that firms can absorb spillovers (driffield and smeets, 2013), but we further note that it is not the type of fdi that matters, but its ability to absorb spillovers. 5ec8ef588b
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